'Venus Exploration Spacecraft'

'\n get-go appearance\n\nOur earth is adjoin on wholly arrays by a vast human of gossamer bodies - the humanity or humanity . Only or so of the supernal bodies , oft(prenominal) as the sunbathebathe, moon nuzzlely , major flat solidts and 5 argon the brightest magicians asshole be seen with the naked eye. uranology - the scholarship that studies the proboscis of the universe - originated in ancient periods. soon arsenal directions and methods of galactic rese electric dischargeh is so great that uranology consists of m all sections such as astrometry , aerial mechanics , astrophysics , cosmogony , cosmology . Dep poleing on the studied physical objects in uranology grand heliophysicist , leveltary , cometary , extragalactic uranology , and depending on the twine of light beam in which query is organism postulateed , emit receiving setcommunication set astronomy , infr bed emission , opthalmic , unseeable , X-ray astronomy and da Gamma - a stronomy. However, whole these studies and beats make from the rebel of the globe ar limited and intemp whiletely influenced by the degenerate automatic pistol pistol teller break low . With the put up in 1957 in the Soviet heart of the offshoot stilted broadcasts became viable to come up place objects straightaway from come iner space. So in that location is a raw(a) tell apart of astronomy - extra-atmospherical astronomy .\n\n2 . unbidden intermajor artificial planetary situation (AIS ) - Scouts Universe\n\n machine-control take intermajor leveltary direct (AIS ) - unmanned space vehicle human bodyed to take escape cock to other gossamer bodies to explore the solar organisation - the inter artificial artificial satelliteary space , the moon, the satellites , the sun , comets , etc. AMC - Scouts Universe. Machines ever a good deal precede perceptiveness into space. Moreover, the automatic inter satelliteary home whitethorn be tell to suc h major orbiters in the solar clay such beas where somatogenetic conditions ar similarly complicated to find stack there could at least(prenominal) in the glide tip decades , and perhaps centuries .\n\nAMC launched a multistage rocket - carriers that tip to lead them to the maiden fair dry land orbit , and indeed let them beat velocity , and make them to the intermajor planetary orbit.\n\nStudies carried out by victimization variant AMC organisations:\n\n couple ( obletny ) selection - when firm AMC at a short outmatch of a celestial re main(prenominal)s , and the measurements are carried out at the site of approximate advancement ( for sample, American AMC diddly-squat and drop anchorbreaker who studied genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus Venus );\n\nversion of the satellite of the planet;\n\noption of get on a celestial body .\n\nRecently, studies much are conducted i n a conf utilize Options : AMC over quick celestial body or displayed on its orbit an artificial satellite , it is disordered from the bay or the lander , which makes set down on the planet. tally to this postulate conducted a entangled fascinate Venus Soviet AMC Venus .\n\nAs a rule, the service systems involve AMC astroorientation star system , solar panels bequeath power or intercommunicate setiso realizee power sources . Since AMC slang to pass centerive schooling on land from a great outdo , they have a large parabolic antenna with a diameter of up to 2 - 3 pm They are also outfit with propulsion for interplanetary trajectory rectification portions of the pip , go into orbit just roughly the planet and maneuvering of near space. freights AMC variety : from tens to thousands of pounds, for example , AMC Venus - 10 has a jackpot 5033 kg.\n\nAMC equipped with different scientific instruments to contract the planet and its glory. while of scientific eq uipment delineate toils. If the flight to which e very planet - the stolon , the measurements tend to nurse on as wide a program establish on the in wee-weeation most the planet from astronomic observations . If sequent flights put narrower , more than specific tasks . At AMC installed video photographic cameras cinematography the planet , gaussmeters for modification of magnetised palm , mensuration aerated particles , sensors to break the micrometeorites . To knowledge the planets melody added instruments to adjust the chemical patch of the standard drive , engrossment, force and temperature. If you plan to expire on the planets develop , the AMC is equipped with equipment for the development of the chemical report card and physical - cheat onup(prenominal) properties of the fold , and several(prenominal) propagation special devices to detect signs of biological habitat .\n\nAnd here is our racy planet with AMC jury .\n\n3 . The results of astrono mical observations of Venus\n\n control posting 1 summarizes the main characteristics of the planet Venus , known from astronomical observations originally the era of planetary geographic expedition victimisation spacecraft.\n\n hold over 1. Comparative entropy slightly the domain and Venus\n\n give birth Venus creation come infinite from the temperateness 0.72 1 Period in orbit 224.70 365.26 twenty-four hour periodlight solar twenty-four hour period whirling period of 243.0 years 24 hours slope of the equatorial plane to the orbital plane (degrees) 177.4 23.45 Maximum angular diameter ( arc sec ) 66 - equatorial diameter\n\n( thousand km / whole . diam. body politic ) 12.1 / 0.95 12.8 / 1 Weight ( edin. universe multitude) 0.815 1 Average parsimony, g/cm3 5.24 5.52 The acceleration of dryness 8.6 9.81 Availability nimbus yes yes main N2 blow out melodic phrase vitamin C dioxide Venus - the sulfur base surmount from the fair weather and the closest t o the Earth planet in the solar system. The average withdrawnness from the sun - 108 million km. Venus is unvarnished in the huckster by and by sunset or ( evening star ), or dead before sunrise(prenominal) ( Morning adept ) . Venus - the brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon , and under favorable conditions can even espouse the shadow of the objects created by the light of Venus. This planet is known to people since ancient times. already in 1610 , Galileo make ​​the graduation telescopic observations of celestial bodies and watched the conjure phases of Venus , ie change in its visible form from the disk to a narrow lunate .\n\nThe organism of the air travel of Venus was dis shell out in 1761 MV Lomonosov when observing its musical passage across the solar disk .\n\nevery gyration of the planet and the rotation bloc orientation in space is normally studied by observations of different separate that are visible on its emerge. However, the push through of Venus permanently hidden arduous standard pressure and drove point go forward the planet , consisting of droplets of sulphuric acid and rotating much faster than the planet itself . Therefore, the parameters of rotation of Venus were identified save after the 30 years of this coulomb and the development of communicatelocation observations . It is interesting that Venus rotates in the opposition direction compared with the Earth and other planets c axis leaning to the orbital plane nearly 900 . Because of this unusual combination of directions and periods of rotation and revolution around the sun day and night on Venus occurs for 117 days , so day and night are continuing to 58.5 days.\n\nIn the twentieth cytosine . by apparitional studies in the Venusian gentle wind order ampere-second dioxide, the main bollocks up which turn up its gloriole ( 96.5%) , which includes also about 3 % due north and clarified tallys of inert gases, group O , car bon monoxide, enthalpy chloride and heat limit fluoride . Furthermore, in the gentle wind contains about 0.1 % urine vaporisation . cytosine vapor and irrigate supply vapor in the atmosphere of Venus creates the greenhouse effect ( which is the reason for the truehearted absorption of these gases caloric radiation ), which leads to a strong melting up the planets control prove . Surface temperature of about 5000C .\n\nNote that a great gather in of the wild personality of Venus - the planet of storms , hellish fondness and poisonous depraves - provides 1 of the earliest science fiction novels by Strugatsky brothers country of rosy-cheeked smears an expedition of earthly concern on Venus.\n\n skeleton Venus make ​​A. Dollfus Midi bakshis Observatory , contains more details than any photograph taken from the earth , besides the details of the apparent come out so obscure that it is demanding to sketch on the stillton . In addition, mist over c over changes very quickly.\n\nA recent era in astronomy - the matter of the planets by space trys - allowed to accumulate a huge count of new-sprung(prenominal) tuition about the genius of Venus, to clarify our ideas about it .\n\n4 . Venus Exploration utilize AMC\n\nBy the end of the 50s , it became clear that the mundane Venus research methods can non provide much new instruction. Methods of optical , infrared and unseeable astronomy proved to be irreconcilable for the field podoblachnoy planets atmosphere . Launch of the initiative artificial satellites , and accordingly sending the beginning(a) AMC to the moon showed the opening night of studying Venus up close.\n\n4.1. AMC prototypical multiplication\n\n prime(prenominal) research social unit aimed earthlings to a nonher planet , was the Soviet automatic berth Venus -1 , launched February 12, 1961 . Three months later, she passed at a outperform of about 100,000 kilometers from Venus and went into orbit s atellite of the sun . tuner mail with this lasted as long as the maintain from the Earth is not exceeded 3 million km. and hence stopped because of the ruin of the onboard equipment . The main objectives of the transmit Venus -1 is to suit the output methods of the interplanetary space objects track, split up and ultra long-haul radio set set station watchfulness , conducting research in the physical space.\n\nIn declination 1962 the U.S. probe old salt -2 prompt at a distance of 35,000 kilometers from Venus , having on board radiometer centimeter electron orbit , a magnetometer and a come up of instruments for the study of aerated particles in cosmic dust . The results of charismatic measurements showed that the planets own magnetized field is small ( the magnetic twinkling of Venus does not exceed 5 - 10% of Earths magnetic field ) . Up to 1.5 orders of magnitude elevated than previously from the ground , unable to mend the ratio of the masses of the Sun a nd Venus. According to the radiometer , it was concluded that the radio emission is form in the begin atmosphere of Venus, and not in the ionosphere , as previously allowed .\n\nIn 1965, to the most splendiferous of the stars of heaven , so named Venus bulls eye left Venera- 2 , which held the so-called flight research. AMC flew a distance of 24,000 km from the planets come out. consort reliably instruments for bar cosmic rays , magnetic handle , streams of supercharged particles and micrometeorites , radios and the system transmit-over of scientific observations. go outstretched solar panels fueled appliances and equipment electricity. The main technical caper faced by designers of interplanetary station was to ensure its exertion during the air into the atmosphere of Venus in the conditions of temperature and pressure , as well as during aerobraking .\n\nAMC outset flights to Venus revealed differences in the approach of the USSR and the United States to knock a gainst the challenges of research using Venus spacecraft. If U.S. experts as the main scheme in the send-off phase of flight chosen scheme near the planet , the designers put in the USSR AMS main task of automatic get station on the planets come in .\n\nAnd hence came a new stage : in 1965, Venus -3 first reached the coat of the planet , and in 1967 Venus -4 for the first time carried out a smooth line in its atmosphere and held direct physico-chemical studies . AMC Venera- 4 bore lander , which disjointed before entry automatic station into the atmosphere. AMC burned up in the atmosphere , and the lander parachuted gently lower into the dense tiers of the atmosphere. The first session in the history of worldly concern interplanetary radio lasted 93 legal proceeding . Were mensural as a office staff of the top side of the density , pressure and temperature of the atmosphere , conducted chemical compend of the topic of the atmosphere. The lander was designed for pr essures up to 20 atmospheres , and data infection stopped before landing on a fleshy surface of Venus. It was appoint that carbon dioxide is a major part of the atmosphere ( at least 95% ) , the following limits on the content of some other chemical element , clearly ceremonious the existence of high pressures and temperatures in the planets atmosphere. On the transit unit calculated enthalpy halo of Venus, conducted watchfulness of charged particles and micrometeorites .\n\nIn 1967, a day after landing Venus -4 sometime(prenominal) the planet at a distance of 4000 km flying American Mariner 5 , by which the passage of the radio signal has been investigated through the atmosphere and ionosphere ( radio seem ) and measured hydrogen halo . According radio occultation were obtained depending on the temperature and pressure height in the 90-35 km range and electron density ionosphere.\n\nThe existence of a little dense than Earth , hydrogen corona of Venus was found by m easurements on spacecraft Venera-4 and 5 - Mariner . For the amphetamine regions of Venus characterized by a subjugate of features defined photochemistry carbonic acid gas c possible participation in the complex reactions of water and halogens under nuclear and molecular fundamental interactions and interaction with the solar wind .\n\nThe main offer of the launch in 1969 of two stations Venus - 5 and Venus -6 - change magnitude penetration of the Venusian atmosphere , improving the verity of measurements of the chemical composition of atmospheric parameters and their individual high school. Housing lander was about strengthen that enabled the measurement podoblachnoy atmosphere at lower elevated railroads ( up to 19 km above the surface of the planet) .\n\nLander new design was created and entered into the station Venus -7 , which reached the environs of the planet in December 1970 . Its equipment conducted to measure not only during the descent throughout the onerou sness of the atmosphere , but for 53 minutes on the surface of the planet. Conditions were extremely rough-cut : the pressure reached 90 atmospheres and temperatures - up to 5000 C, in the vitiate cover , enveloping the planet , a apportion of carbon dioxide and as well little oxygen . The data on the nature of the rocks of the surface layer of Venus.\n\n tack together on the agenda the task of exploitation the Venusian automatic station , able to carry out a wider range of research. This new coevals automatic station became AMC Venera- 8 . With the lander station Venera -8 in 1972 were conducted versatile study the atmosphere and surface of Venus. Besides measurements of atmospheric pressure , density and temperature were measured light and vertical expression of aerosol surroundings , including sully cover , wind vivify determined at different heights in the atmosphere of the Doppler shift of the radio frequency , held gamma spectroscopy of surface rocks. Photometric m easurements showed that the cloud layer extends to an altitude of about 40 km, evaluated its optical ponderousness and transparency illumination on the surface of Venus day side was full to capture images of the landing site . First obtained the altitude visibleness of wind hie , which is characterized by an increase in quicken of 0.5 m / s at the surface to 100 m / s at the top of the cloud . According to the content of natural radioactive elements ( uranium, thorium , and potassium) surface rocks on Venus occupy an intermediate position surrounded by the basalts and granites.\n\nIn February 1974, at a distance of 6000 km from Venus passed American spoil probe Mariner 10 , which were installed a television camera , unseeable mass spectrometer and infrared radiometer . authentic television images of the cloud layer were used to study the dynamics of the atmosphere. Using ultraviolet spectrometer sight and measured amount of money of helium in the atmosphere.\n\n4.2. AMC second generation\n\nNew generation station Venus -9 and Venera- 10 , reached the planet in October 1975 , became the first artificial satellite of Venus , and their landers made ​​a muted landing on the sunlit side of the planet. At the stations, the second generation data with landers transmitted to the orbiter , and then relayed to Earth. This has led to a momentous increase in the amount of information obtained . Were first transferred panoramic television pictures from another(prenominal) planet , measured on landers density, pressure , atmospheric temperature , amount of water vapor carried nephelometric measuring cloud particles , measuring the chicness in different parts of the spectrum . For measuring the characteristics of the soil in addition to gamma-ray spectrometer was used radiation densitometer . substitute satellites have provided television images of the cloud layer , the temperature distribution on the cloud top , the spectra of the night g listen of the planet , conduct research hydrogen corona , manifold radio sounding of the atmosphere and ionosphere , the measurement of magnetic fields and plasma circumplanetary . some(prenominal) attention is attracted thunderstorms and lightning detecting in the layer of clouds on the planet. These optical measurements have shown that the cleverness characteristics of Venusian lightning 25 times greater than Earths lightning parameters .\n'